Career transition support for learners with Down syndrome: A global scoping review (2013-2023).
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.38140/ijer-2026.vol8.1.02Keywords:
Down syndrome, transition, career development, neurodiversity theory, ecological systems theoryAbstract
The transition from school to post-school settings is a critical period for learners with Down syndrome (DS); however, research focused on career transition support remains limited. This scoping review examined literature from 2013 to 2023 addressing career transition support for learners with DS, employing a conceptual framework that combines neurodiversity theory with Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory. A systematic search across seven databases yielded no results that met the inclusion criteria. A supplementary Google Scholar search identified fifty-four studies, which were analysed to examine the general scope of DS literature. Four main themes emerged: pedagogical and educational support, in-school transitions, post-school functioning, and general career transition for learners with special educational needs. Notably, no studies focused specifically on career transition support for learners with DS as their primary objective. This review reveals a significant gap in educational research; life expectancy for individuals with DS has increased from nine to 60 years, yet educational research has not adapted to this reality. Educational research predominantly focuses on in-school support and fails to address the career development needs of learners with DS, thereby hindering their independence and self-sufficiency in post-school settings. These findings highlight the need for research targeting comprehensive career transition frameworks that address developmental trajectories and support requirements for learners with DS across diverse contexts. Future research should prioritise ability-based approaches that recognise the unique capabilities of learners with DS, moving beyond deficit-focused frameworks.
References
Almalky, H. A. (2020). Employment outcomes for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities: A literature review. Children and Youth Services Review, 109, 104656. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104656
Aluzeib, A. A., Alshammari, S. N., & Alshammari, S. G. (2024). Understanding Down syndrome: A systematic review of genetic, clinical, and cognitive implications. Journal of Ecohumanism, 3(7), 1154–1162.
Amjad, H., & Muhammad, Y. (2019). Teaching students with Down syndrome: Perspectives of special schoolteachers and psychologists. Journal of Inclusive Education, 3(1), 127-143.
Bam, A., Kriger, S., & Cottle, Z. (2023). A (mis)guidance of disabled youth: Post-secondary schooling transition experiences in South Africa. African Journal of Disability, 12, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v12i0.1293
Beamish, W., Hay, S., & Yuen, M. (2024). Moving inclusion forward for students with special educational needs in the Asia-Pacific region. Frontiers in Education.
Boundy, L., Hargreaves, S., Baxter, R., Holton, S., & Burgoyne, K. (2023). Views of educators working with pupils with Down syndrome on their roles, responsibilities, and factors related to successful inclusion. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 142, 104617.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Doing your own thing? Our undoing. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 8(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01463472
Channell, M. M., & Loveall, S. J. (2018). Post-high school transition for individuals with Down syndrome. International Review of Research in Developmental Disabilities, 54,. 105–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.irrdd.2018.07.003
Christianson, A. L. (1996). Down syndrome in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Medical Genetics, 33(2), 89–92. https://doi.org/10.1136/jmg.33.2.89
Christianson, A., Howson, C. P., & Modell, B. (2006). March of Dimes. Global report on birth defects. The hidden toll of dying and disabled children. New York, 10–16.
Christianson-Barker, J., Franzius, A., Mills, R., Lomness, A., & Hole, R. (2025). Employing Strength: A Scoping Review of Customised Employment Practices to Support Inclusive Employment for People with Intellectual Disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 63(2), 119-140. https://doi.org/10.1177/10522263251356445
Coñoman, G. I., Ávila, V., & Carmona, C. (2024). Initiatives to support the school-to-work transition of people with intellectual disabilities: A systematic review. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 49(4), 488–500.
Crawford, M. (2020). Ecological systems theory: Exploring the theoretical framework's development as Bronfenbrenner conceived. Journal of Public Health Issue and Practice, 4(2), 170.
Delabar, J.-M., Allinquant, B., Bianchi, D., Blumenthal, T., Dekker, A., Edgin, J., O'Bryan, J., Dierssen, M., Potier, M.-C., & Wiseman, F. (2016). Changing paradigms in Down syndrome: The first international conference of the Trisomy 21 Research Society. Molecular Syndromology, 7(5), 251–261.
Devi, A., Baig, L. A., Musharaf, M., & Tariq, H. (2025). Whispers of resilience: A phenomenological exploration of maternal journeys with children affected by Down syndrome in Quetta, Baluchistan. Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences, 41(3), 856.
Down, J. L. H. (1866). Observations on an ethnic classification of idiots. London Hospital Reports, 3(1866), 259–262.
Dwyer, P., Mineo, E., Mifsud, K., Lindholm, C., Gurba, A., & Waisman, T. (2023). Building neurodiversity-inclusive postsecondary campuses: Recommendations for leaders in higher education. Autism in Adulthood, 5(1), 1–14.
Dzhugudzha, N., Uys, C., & Ramano, E. M. (2025). Current practices influencing school-to-work transition for learners with mild intellectual disability: A scoping review. South African Journal of Education, 45(2), 1–16.
Ellman, E., Sonday, A., & Buchanan, H. (2020). Transition from special school to post-school life in youths with severe intellectual disability: Parents' experiences. South African Journal of Education, 40(2), S1–S9.
Esbensen, A. J., Schworer, E. K., & Hartley, S. L. (2024). Down syndrome. In M. G. Valdovinos (Ed.), Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (pp. 279–302). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-66932-3_13
Eseadi, C., & Diale, B. M. (2023). Examining career transitioning among students with specific learning disabilities. International Journal of Special Education, 38(3), 82–94. https://doi.org/10.52291/ijse.2023.38.41
Evans, D., Borriello, G. A., & Field, A. P. (2018). A review of the academic and psychological impact of the transition to secondary education. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1482.
Fabri, M., Fenton, G., Andrews, P., & Beaton, M. (2022). Experiences of higher education students on the autism spectrum: Stories of low mood and high resilience. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 69(4), 1411–1429. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2020.1767764
Faragher, R. M. (2023). A practical guide to educating learners with Down syndrome: Supporting lifelong learning. Routledge.
Foley, K.-R., Jacoby, P., Girdler, S., Bourke, J., Pikora, T., Lennox, N., Einfeld, S., Llewellyn, G., Parmenter, T. R., & Leonard, H. (2013). Functioning and post-school transition outcomes for young people with Down syndrome. Child: Care, Health and Development, 39(6), 789–800. https://doi.org/10.1111/cch.12019
Frentzel, E., Geyman, Z., Rasmussen, J., Nye, C., & Murphy, K. M. (2021). Pre-employment transition services for students with disabilities: A scoping review. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 54(2), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-201123
Fung, S. K., & Lan, Y. (2017). Post-school transition of students with special educational needs in Hong Kong. In Transitions to post-school life: Responsiveness to individual, social and economic needs (pp. 183–195). Springer.
Hargreaves, S., Holton, S., Baxter, R., & Burgoyne, K. (2021). Educational experiences of pupils with Down syndrome in the UK. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 119, 104115.
High, R., & Robinson, S. (2021). Graduating university as a woman with Down syndrome: Reflecting on my education. Social Sciences, 10(11), 444.
Ibrahim, R., Abdullah, N., Yassin, M. H. M., Handrianto, C., Uçar, A. S., & Kenedi, A. K. (2021). Activities and issues of career transition program for students with learning disabilities (SLD): An initial review. International Journal of Education, Information Technology, and Others, 4(2), 244–251.
Jones, K. E., Ben-David, S., & Hole, R. (2020). Are individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities included in research? A review of the literature. Research and Practice in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 7(2), 99–119.
Kamat, A. (2024). Down syndrome screening: A practical guide. Springer Nature.
Kapp, S. K. (2020). Autistic community and the neurodiversity movement: Stories from the frontline. Springer Nature.
Karkera, S. (2021). A current knowledge of "Down syndrome: A review." International Journal of Dental Medicine and Science Research, 3(1), 805–810.
Korlimarla, A., Hart, S. J., Spiridigliozzi, G. A., & Kishnani, P. S. (2021). Down syndrome. In J. C. Carey, A. Battaglia, D. Viskochil, & S. B. Cassidy (Eds.), Cassidy and Allanson's Management of Genetic Syndromes (1st ed., pp. 355–387). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119432692.ch24
Leite, G. G., & Campos, J. A. d. P. P. International post-secondary transition programs for people with intellectual disabilities: A scoping review.
Louis, M. R. (1980). Career transitions: Varieties and commonalities. Academy of Management Review, 5(3), 329–340. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1980.4288836
Mak, S., & Thomas, A. (2022). Steps for conducting a scoping review. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 14(5), 565–567.
Mathew, T., Varghese, R., & Latha, K. (2026). Neurodivergent talent in the workforce: The 'new frontier' to equitable economic growth. In Legal and Regulatory Considerations of Leveraging Sustainable Finance (pp. 153–188). IGI Global Scientific Publishing.
Mazzotti, V. L., Rowe, D. A., Kwiatek, S., Voggt, A., Chang, W.-H., Fowler, C. H., Poppen, M., Sinclair, J., & Test, D. W. (2021). Secondary transition predictors of postschool success: An update to the research base. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 44(1), 47–64.
Mazzotti, V. L., Rowe, D. A., Kwiatek, S., Voggt, A., Chang, W.-H., Fowler, C. H., Poppen, M., Sinclair, J., & Test, D. W. (2021). Secondary transition predictors of postschool success: An update to the research base. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 44(1), 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143420959793
McCaffrey, N., Dew, A., Philpott, C., Ingold, J., McVilly, K., Smith-Merry, J., Livingstone, A., & Hutchinson, C. L. (2025). Impact of employment support in different work environments on individuals with intellectual disability and their families from their own perspectives: Protocol for a systematic review of qualitative evidence. BMJ Open, 15(6), e098312.
McGlinchey, E., Fortea, J., Vava, B., Andrews, Y., Ranchod, K., & Kleinhans, A. (2025). Raising awareness and addressing inequities for people with Down syndrome in South Africa. International Journal for Equity in Health, 24(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-024-02349-3
Motegi, N., Morisaki, N., Suto, M., Tamai, H., Mori, R., & Nakayama, T. (2021). Secular trends in longevity among people with Down syndrome in Japan, 1995–2016. Paediatrics International, 63(1), 94–101. https://doi.org/10.1111/ped.14354
Ndlovu, S., & Walton, E. (2016). Preparation of students with disabilities to graduate into professions in the South African context of higher learning: Obstacles and opportunities. African Journal of Disability, 5(1), eight pages. https://doi.org/10.4102/ajod.v5i1.150
Ookeditse, G. B., Habulezi, J., Batsalelwang, K. J., & Molemane, N. J. (2024). Postsecondary transition barriers for students with disabilities in two neighboring school regions in Botswana. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 68(1), 37–49.
Panopoulos, N., & Drossinou-Korea, M. (2021). Teaching methodology for students with special educational needs during their transition to secondary education. Journal of Educational Research and Reviews, 9(6), 153–165.
Peters, V. J. T., Bok, L. A., De Beer, L., Van Rooij, J. J. M., Meijboom, B. R., & Bunt, J. E. H. (2022). Destination unknown: Parents and healthcare professionals' perspectives on transition from paediatric to adult care in Down syndrome. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 35(5), 1208–1216. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.13015
Saruwatari, K., & Imamura, A. (2025). Neurodiversity. In G. Bennett & E. Goodall (Eds.), The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Disability (pp. 1–6). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-40858-8_172-1
Sefora, S., & Ngubane, S. A. (2023). Career development for students with disabilities in an open distance learning institution: A narrative inquiry. Disability & Society, 38(3), 445–459. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2021.1946676
Sefotho, M. M., & Onyishi, C. N. (2021). In-school transition challenges among primary school learners with autism spectrum disorders in South Africa: Parents and teachers' perspectives. Perspectives in Education, 39(2), 283–302. https://doi.org/10.18820/2519593X/pie.v39.i2.20
Sehic, S. (2017). Teaching reading skills to learners with Down syndrome. International Journal of Educational Technology and Learning, 1(1), 16–27.
Shaffeei, K. (2021). Career transition program for special need students. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Special Education (Vol. 4, pp. 195–204). SEAMEO Regional Centre for Special Educational Needs.
Shogren, K. A., & Wittenburg, D. (2020). Improving outcomes of transition-age youth with disabilities: A life course perspective. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 43(1), 18–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143419887853
Tan, Y. M., & Yasin, M. H. M. Y. (2023). Implementation of career transition program for students with learning disabilities in Sabah. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 13(3), 1120–1130.
Vargas-Salas, O., Alcazar-Gonzales, J. C., Fernández-Fernández, F. A., Molina-Rodríguez, F. N., Paredes-Velazco, R., & Carcausto-Zea, M. L. (2025). Neurodivergence and the workplace: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 63(1), 83–94.
Vaswani, M. (2024). Neurodivergent entrepreneurship: The Indian perspective. In Neurodiversity and Entrepreneurship (pp. 151–166). Emerald Publishing Limited.
Wajuihian, S. O. (2016). Down syndrome: An overview. African Vision and Eye Health, 75(1), six pages. https://doi.org/10.4102/aveh.v75i1.346
Wehman, P. (2013). Transition from school to work: Where are we and where do we need to go? Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 36(1), 58–66. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143413482137
Wehmeyer, M. L., Nota, L., Soresi, S., Shogren, K. A., Morningstar, M. E., Ferrari, L., Sgaramella, T. M., & DiMaggio, I. (2019). A crisis in career development: Life designing and implications for transition. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 42(3), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143417750092
Windsperger, K., & Hoehl, S. (2021). Development of Down syndrome research over the last decades: What healthcare and education professionals need to know. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.749046
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Nettie Nobukosi Ndou-Chikwena, Maximus Monaheng Sefotho
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
