Access to agricultural extension services among smallholder farmers in the North West province, South Africa: Socio-economic characteristics and service-delivery patterns
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.38140/ijss-2026.vol6.1.05Keywords:
Agricultural extension services, smallholder farmers, extension access, socio-economic determinants, service delivery factorsAbstract
Agricultural extension services play a critical role in enhancing smallholder agricultural productivity through the provision of knowledge, technologies, and advisory support. However, access to extension services remains uneven across many developing agricultural contexts, including South Africa. This study examines the socio-economic and service delivery factors associated with smallholder farmers’ access to agricultural extension services in Northwest Province, South Africa. A cross-sectional survey design was employed, and data were collected from 115 smallholder farmers using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics and Spearman’s rank correlation analysis were utilised for data analysis. The findings revealed that while awareness of agricultural extension services was universal, actual access to extension support varied among farmers, with 84.35% reporting interaction with extension services. Public extension services were identified as the primary source of advisory support, complemented by contact farmers and radio-based communication channels. Farmers primarily accessed information related to livestock health, weather conditions, crop protection, and farm management practices. The study further found that the frequency of extension visits and the relevance of extension information were key determinants influencing farmers’ engagement with extension services. Spearman’s correlation analysis demonstrated significant positive associations between extension access and socio-economic variables such as gender, marital status, and education level, while household size exhibited a weaker positive relationship. Overall, the study illustrates that access to agricultural extension services is shaped by both farmer-level socio-economic characteristics and institutional service delivery conditions. The study recommends strengthening extension outreach, improving the relevance of advisory information, and promoting inclusive extension approaches to enhance agricultural knowledge dissemination.
References
Adebayo, J. A., & Worth, S. H. (2024). Profile of women in African agriculture and access to extension services. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 9, 100790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100790
Akhter, P., Hussain, T., & Ahsan, H. B. (2021). Mass media as a source of agricultural information: An overview of literature. Global Regional Review, 6(2), 58-63. https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2021(VI-II).08
Akram, N., Akram, M. W., Wang, H., & Mehmood, A. (2019). Does land tenure systems affect sustainable agricultural development? Sustainability, 11(14), 3925. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11143925
Anderson, J. R., & Feder, G. (2007). Agricultural extension. In Handbook of agricultural economics (Vol. 3, pp. 2343-2378).
Ankrah, D. A., Freeman, C. Y., & Afful, A. (2020). Gendered access to productive resources: Evidence from small holder farmers in Awutu Senya West District of Ghana. Scientific African, 10, e00604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2020.e00604
Argaw, B., Yehuala, K., & Aschalew, A. (2023). Review on the role of agricultural extension service on increasing farm productivity in Ethiopia. International Journal of Finance Research, 4(2), 77-89. https://doi.org/10.47747/ijfr.v4i2.1153
Asaaga, F. A., Hirons, M. A., & Malhi, Y. (2020). Questioning the link between tenure security and sustainable land management in cocoa landscapes in Ghana. World Development, 130, 104913. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.104913
Aubron, C., Bainville, S., Philippon, O., & Dorin, B. (2022). Neither corporate, nor family: The Indian "patronal" farm. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 6, 850545. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2022.850545
Ayalew, A., & Girma, Y. (2025). The effect of age on agricultural technology adoption by smallholder farmers in Ethiopia: A systematic review and meta‐analysis. Advances in Agriculture, 2025(1), 8881484. https://doi.org/10.1155/aia/8881484
Ayalew, H., Chamberlin, J., & Newman, C. (2022). Site-specific agronomic information and technology adoption: A field experiment from Ethiopia. Journal of Development Economics, 156, 102788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2021.102788
Ayaz, M., & Mughal, M. (2024). Farm size and productivity: The role of family labour. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 72(2), 959-995. https://doi.org/10.1086/721837
Badstue, L., Petesch, P., Farnworth, C. R., Roeven, L., & Hailemariam, M. (2020). Women farmers and agricultural innovation: Marital status and normative expectations in rural Ethiopia. Sustainability, 12(23), 9847.https://doi.org/10.3390/su12239847
Bambio, Y., & Agha, S. B. (2018). Land tenure security and investment: Does strength of land right really matter in rural Burkina Faso? World Development, 111, 130-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.06.026
Biam, K. P., & Barman, U. (2017). Effectiveness of research-extension-farmer linkages of agricultural technology management agencies in Assam, India. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6, 1873-1883. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2017.612.214
Birner, R., & Anderson, J. R. (2007). How to make agricultural extension demand driven? The case of India's agricultural extension policy (Vol. 729). International Food Policy Research Institute.
Birner, R., Daum, T., & Pray, C. (2021). Who drives the digital revolution in agriculture? A review of supply‐side trends, players and challenges. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 43(4), 1260-1285. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13145
Brewer, K. M., & Gaudin, A. C. (2020). Potential of crop-livestock integration to enhance carbon sequestration and agroecosystem functioning in semi-arid croplands. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 149, 107936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2020.107936
Cavatassi, R., Phillips, L. M., Maggio, G., Anteneh, Z., & Mabiso, A. (2025). Enhancing households' livelihoods in agrifood systems: The role of women's empowerment. Global Food Security, 45, 100856.
Cawley, A., Heanue, K., Hilliard, R., O'Donoghue, C., & Sheehan, M. (2023). How knowledge transfer impact happens at the farm level: Insights from advisers and farmers in the Irish agricultural sector. Sustainability, 15(4), 3226. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15043226
Danso-Abbeam, G., Ehiakpor, D. S., & Aidoo, R. (2018). Agricultural extension and its effects on farm productivity and income: Insight from Northern Ghana. Agriculture & Food Security, 7(1), 74. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0225-x
Dasgupta, S. (2025). Climate responsive extension and advisory services (EAS).
Davis, K. E., Babu, S. C., & Ragasa, C. (2020). Agricultural extension: Global status and performance in selected countries. International Food Policy Research Institute.
Deneke, T. T., & Gulti, D. (2016). Agricultural research and extension linkages in the Amhara region, Ethiopia. In Technological and institutional innovations for marginalized smallholders in agricultural development (pp. 113-124). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25718-1_7
Dhehibi, B., Rudiger, U., Moyo, H. P., & Dhraief, M. Z. (2020). Agricultural technology transfer preferences of smallholder farmers in Tunisia's arid regions. Sustainability, 12(1), 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12010421
Dowsing, M., & Cardey, S. (2020). Smallholder farmers' perspectives on advisory extension services: A case study of the Gamo communities of Southern Ethiopia. Social Sciences, 9(9), 159. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9090159
Diiro, G. M., Seymour, G., Kassie, M., Muricho, G., & Muriithi, B. W. (2018). Women's empowerment in agriculture and agricultural productivity: Evidence from rural maize farmer households in Western Kenya. PloS One, 13(5), e0197995. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197995
Cernea, M. M., Coulter, J. K., & Russell, J. F. (Eds.). (1985). Extension-farmer: A two-way continuum for agricultural development (pp. xvi–171).
Ejem, A. A., Aremu, C., Ajakaiye, O. O., Ben-Enukora, C., Akerele-Popoola, O. E., Ibiwoye, T. I., & Olaniran, A. F. (2023). Perspectives on communicating 21st-century agricultural innovations to Nigerian rural farmers. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 11, 100511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100511
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
FAO. (2022). The state of food and agriculture: Leveraging automation in agriculture for transforming agrifood systems. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://doi.org/10.4060/cb9479en
Ferdinand, T., Illick-Frank, E., Postema, L., Stephenson, J., Rose, A., Petrovic, D., ... & del Rio, C. R. (2021). A blueprint for digital climate-informed advisory services: Building the resilience of 300 million small-scale producers by 2030. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. Working Paper, 20, 116623.
Field, A. (2024). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics. Sage Publications Limited.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), & Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). (2014). Youth and agriculture: Key challenges and concrete solutions. Rome: FAO.
Franzel, S., Kiptot, E., & Degrande, A. (2018). Farmer-to-farmer extension: A low-cost approach for promoting climate-smart agriculture. In The Climate-Smart Agriculture Papers: Investigating the Business of a Productive, Resilient and Low Emission Future (pp. 277–288). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Gboko, K. C., Faure, G., & Ruf, F. (2021). Does privatizing advisory services guarantee better services? Evidence from advisory services pertaining to cocoa certification in Côte d'Ivoire. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 27(3), 307–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2020.1851269
Gebremariam, Y. A., Dessein, J., Wondimagegnhu, B. A., Breusers, M., Lenaerts, L., Adgo, E., ... & Nyssen, J. (2021). Determinants of farmers' level of interaction with agricultural extension agencies in northwest Ethiopia. Sustainability, 13(6), 3447. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2020.1851269
Higgins, D., Balint, T., Liversage, H., & Winters, P. (2018). Investigating the impacts of increased rural land tenure security: A systematic review of the evidence. Journal of Rural Studies, 61, 34–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.05.001
High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition (HLPE). (2020). Food security and nutrition: Building a global narrative towards 2030 (HLPE Report No. 15). Rome: Committee on World Food Security, FAO. https://www.fao.org/3/ca9731en/ca9731en.pdf
Huffman, W. E. (2020). Human capital and adoption of innovations: Policy implications. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy, 42(1), 92-99. https://doi.org/10.1002/aepp.13010
Ijatuyi, E. J., Omotayo, A. O., & Mabe, L. K. (2017). Effect of extension service(s) and socio-economic characteristics on the livelihood of Nguni cattle development project beneficiaries in North West Province: A Tobit-OLS regression approach. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 45(1), 64-77. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2017/v45n1a427
Jack, C., Adenuga, A. H., Ashfield, A., & Wallace, M. (2020). Investigating the drivers of farmers' engagement in a participatory extension programme: The case of Northern Ireland business development groups. Sustainability, 12(11), 4510. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114510
Jayne, T. S., Chamberlin, J., & Headey, D. D. (2014). Land pressures, the evolution of farming systems, and development strategies in Africa: A synthesis. Food Policy, 48, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2014.05.014
Kalogiannidis, S., & Syndoukas, D. (2024). The impact of agricultural extension services on farm output: A worldwide viewpoint. Research on World Agricultural Economy, 5(1), 96-114. https://doi.org/10.36956/rwae.v5i1.999
Kansiime, M. K., Mugambi, I., Rware, H., Alokit, C., Aliamo, C., Zhang, F., ... & Romney, D. (2022). Challenges and capacity gaps in smallholder access to digital extension and advisory services in Kenya and Uganda. Engineering Agriculture, 9(4), 642-654. https://journal.hep.com.cn/fase/EN/10.15302/J-FASE-2021423
Kiriti, T., & Tisdell, C. A. (2003). Marital status, farm size and other influences on the extent of cash cropping in Kenya: A household case study. https://doi.org/10.22004/ag.econ.105586
Klerkx, L., Van Mierlo, B., & Leeuwis, C. (2012). Evolution of systems approaches to agricultural innovation: Concepts, analysis and interventions. In Farming systems research into the 21st century: The new dynamic (pp. 457-483).
Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New Age International.
Le Hoang Nguyen, L., Halibas, A., & Quang Nguyen, T. (2023). Determinants of precision agriculture technology adoption in developing countries: A review. Journal of Crop Improvement, 37(1), 1-24.
Mapiye, O., Makombe, G., Molotsi, A. H., Dzama, K., & Mapiye, C. (2025). Revolutionising the public extension system for smallholder livestock farmers: User experiences and the prospects of using information and communication technologies in Northwest Province, South Africa. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 53(1), 120-138. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2025/v53n1a18044
Martin, R. (2023). Reconsidering home or farm visit extension method for improving impact of agricultural extension in Tanzania. Journal of Agricultural Extension, 27(4), 41-52. https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/jae.v27i4.5
Martini, E., Pagella, T., Mollee, E., & van Noordwijk, M. (2023). Relational values in locally adaptive farmer-to-farmer extension: How important? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 65, 101363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2023.101363
Mazibuko, N. V. E., & Antwi, M. A. (2019). Socio-economic factors influencing smallholder farmers' agricultural infrastructure availability, accessibility and satisfaction: A case on North West Province in South Africa. OIDA International Journal of Sustainable Development, 12(5), 11–26. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3481545
Mbatha, M. W. (2024). The provision of agricultural extension services to rural farmers as a strategy to improve agricultural practices in South Africa. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 52(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2024/v52n1a12717
Mesfin, H., Tessema, Y. M., Tirivayi, N., & Nillesen, E. (2023). Effective knowledge transmission and learning in agriculture: Evidence from a randomised training experiment in Ethiopia. Africa Development / Afrique et Développement, 48(1), 213–244. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48722488
Midamba, D. C., & Ouko, K. O. (2024). Gender disparities in agricultural extension among smallholders in Western Uganda. Cogent Economics & Finance, 12(1), 2391938. https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2024.2391938
Modirwa, S. M. (2019). Effects of farmers' socioeconomic characteristics on access to agricultural information in Ngaka Modiri Molema District of the North West Province. International Journal of Agricultural Extension, 7(1), 1-7.
Muatha, I. T., Otieno, D. J., & Nyikal, R. A. (2017). Determinants of smallholder farmers' awareness of agricultural extension devolution in Kenya. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 12(51), 3549-3555. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR2017.12603
Mulungu, K. (2025). The role of information and communication technologies in improving access to agricultural information among farmers. Journal of Rural Studies.https://doi.org/10.1080/02681102.2025.2456232
Nyawo, J. C., & Mubangizi, B. C. (2021). Perception of agricultural smallholder farmers on public extension and advisory services in Ethekwini Municipality, Kwazulu-Natal Province. Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University, 56(3), 499-518.
Nyberg, Y., Mackay, H., Wilson, M., Samkunde, M., & Wetterlind, J. (2025). Supporting access and implementation of agricultural extension services for female smallholder farmers: A systematic review. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 23(1), 2505387. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2025.2505387
Okello, D. M., Akite, I., Atube, F., Kalule, S. W., & Ongeng, D. (2023). Examining the relationship between farmers' characteristics and access to agricultural extension: Empirical evidence from Northern Uganda. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 29(4), 439-461. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2022.2082500
Ongachi, W., & Belinder, I. (2025). Agricultural extension as a pathway to livelihood diversification and sustainable development in rural communities: A systematic review. BMC Agriculture, 1(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42533-025-00006-1
Pallant, J. (2020). SPSS survival manual: A step-by-step guide to data analysis using IBM SPSS. Routledge.
Pawłowska, A., & Jaroszewska, J. (2020). Impact of the labour productivity on farm income in Poland. Zagadnienia Ekonomiki Rolnej/Problems of Agricultural Economics, (1). https://ssrn.com/abstract=3710720
Posthumus, H., Romney, D., Dhamankar, M., Flink, I., Kansiime, M. K., Njunge, R., & Kadzamira, M. A. (2025). A review on effective and efficient communication in agricultural extension to enhance adoption of agricultural best practices at scale. https://doi.org/10.1079/CABICOMM-62-8186
Quaye, W., Fuseini, M., Boadu, P., & Asafu-Adjaye, N. Y. (2019). Bridging the gender gap in agricultural development through gender responsive extension and rural advisory services delivery in Ghana. Journal of Gender Studies, 28(2), 185–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/09589236.2017.1419941
Ragasa, C., Berhane, G., Tadesse, F., & Taffesse, A. S. (2013). Gender differences in access to extension services and agricultural productivity. The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 19(5), 437–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2013.817343
Röling, N. I. E. L. S., & Engel, P. G. H. (1991). The development of the concept of agricultural knowledge information systems (AKIS): Implications for extension.
Ruzzante, S., Labarta, R., & Bilton, A. (2021). Adoption of agricultural technology in the developing world: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. World Development, 146, 105599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105599
Salerno, J., Bailey, K., Diem, J., Konecky, B., Bridges, R., Namusisi, S., ... & Hartter, J. (2022). Smallholder knowledge of local climate conditions predicts positive on-farm outcomes. Weather, Climate, and Society, 14(3), 671–680. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-21-0131.1
Sebeho, M. A., & Stevens, J. B. (2019). An overview of perceptions and attitudes towards extension service delivery in Fezile Dabi District, Free State Province. South African Journal of Agricultural Extension, 47(1), 61–72. https://doi.org/10.17159/2413-3221/2019/v47n1a490
Sseguya, H., Robinson, D. S., Mwango, H. R., Flock, J. A., Manda, J., Abed, R., & Mruma, S. O. (2021). The impact of demonstration plots on improved agricultural input purchase in Tanzania: Implications for policy and practice. PLOS ONE, 16(1), e0243896. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0243896
Sekaran, U., Lai, L., Ussiri, D. A., Kumar, S., & Clay, S. (2021). Role of integrated crop-livestock systems in improving agriculture production and addressing food security—a review. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 5, 100190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2021.100190
Takahashi, K., Muraoka, R., & Otsuka, K. (2020). Technology adoption, impact, and extension in developing countries' agriculture: A review of the recent literature. Agricultural Economics, 51(1), 31–45.https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12539
Tuheirwe-Mukasa, D., Haveraaen, M., Sansa-Otim, J., Kanagwa, B., & Mujuni, G. R. (2019). The efficacy of ICT in weather forecast information dissemination: Evidence from farming communities in Mbale and Rakai Districts, Uganda. In Agriculture and ecosystem resilience in Sub-Saharan Africa: Livelihood pathways under changing climate (pp. 571-593). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12974-3_25
Tennhardt, L. M., Lazzarini, G. A., Schader, C., Martin, K., & Lambin, E. F. (2024). The role of household labour for sustainable intensification in smallholder systems: A case study in cocoa farming systems. Regional Environmental Change, 24(2), 83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-024-02243-2
Ullah, A., Saqib, S. E., & Kächele, H. (2022). Determinants of farmers' awareness and adoption of extension recommended wheat varieties in the rainfed areas of Pakistan. Sustainability, 14(6), 3194. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063194
Workalemahu, S., & Dawid, I. (2021). Smallholder farmers' adaptation strategies, opportunities and challenges to climate change: A review. International Journal of Food Science and Agriculture, 5(4). https://doi.org/10.26855/ijfsa.2021.12.005
Wossen, T., Abdoulaye, T., Alene, A., Haile, M. G., Feleke, S., Olanrewaju, A., & Manyong, V. (2017). Impacts of extension access and cooperative membership on technology adoption and household welfare. Journal of Rural Studies, 54, 223-233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2017.06.022
Yu, W., & Luo, X. (2022). Farming experience and farmers' adoption of low-carbon management practices: The case of soil testing and fertiliser recommendations in China. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(5), 6755-6765. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16166-6
Zerssa, G., Feyssa, D., Kim, D. G., & Eichler-Löbermann, B. (2021). Challenges of smallholder farming in Ethiopia and opportunities by adopting climate-smart agriculture. Agriculture, 11(3), 192. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture11030192
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Olaitan Ayotunde Shemfe
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
